A critically endangered subspecies<\/h2>\n
The Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri), a subspecies native to the Southeast Asia mainland, is listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The latest population estimate ranges from 77 to 766 individuals \u2014 highlighting both the subspecies\u2019 rarity and the difficulty of studying it.<\/p>\n
\u201cIt is almost impossible to accurately estimate leopard population numbers at a broad scale with any degree of precision,\u201d says Gareth Mann, who leads the leopard program at Panthera, a global NGO focused on wildcat conservation. Dense forest habitats and a high proportion of melanistic individuals, commonly known as black panthers, make Indochinese leopards particularly difficult to survey: researchers rely on each leopard\u2019s unique markings to identify individuals, but in melanistic leopards, these are only detectable under UV light.<\/p>\n
Kaeng Krachan National Park is part of the Northern Tenasserim Forest Complex, which straddles the border between Thailand and Myanmar, and has been identified as one of the two remaining strongholds for Indochinese leopards. The other lies in Peninsular Malaysia. A former stronghold in Cambodia\u2019s Eastern Plains has been lost in recent years, with leopards now believed to have gone functionally extinct in Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos. These losses have been driven by poaching, the illegal wildlife trade, and a vast snaring crisis: some 12 million traps are thought to be scattered across protected forests in the three countries, mostly to meet demand for wild meat.<\/p>\n
Research led by Susana Rostro-Garc\u00eda, a researcher affiliated with Panthera and the University of Oxford in the U.K., finds that the Indochinese leopard, once widespread across Southeast Asia and southern China, now survives in just 2-6% of its historical range. In that 2024 paper, Rostro-Garc\u00eda and co-authors assess the largest camera-trap study for leopards in Southeast Asia to date, concluding that the prognosis for the Indochinese leopard (and the even more endangered Javan leopard) is \u201cincreasingly bleak.\u201d<\/p>\n
According to Rostro-Garc\u00eda, \u201cthe loss of the Indochinese leopard could also lead to a sequence of additional species extinctions.\u201d Because it\u2019s more adaptable than other large carnivores, the Indochinese leopard fulfills a critical ecological role. Its disappearance could \u201cresult in changes in the numbers and distributions of smaller carnivores and prey,\u201d which could in turn \u201ccause dramatic changes in ecosystem structure and potential imbalances,\u201d she says.<\/p>\n Few conservation projects in Southeast Asia focus on leopards, despite their critical status. By contrast, there are many initiatives devoted to tigers: Tigers are endemic to Asia and often seen as \u201csymbolic of Asian conservation,\u201d Mann says. As the \u201cbigger, more dominant cat,\u201d they tend to draw more attention, just as lions do in Africa.<\/p>\n Unlike tigers, whose populations have declined more uniformly across their range, Indochinese leopards show variable densities, says Robert Steinmetz from WWF Thailand. In some locations, populations have dropped dramatically or vanished altogether, whereas in others, like Kaeng Krachan, they remain relatively high. \u201cThis variability in leopard populations creates the perception that they are doing better than their more charismatic cousin,\u201d Steinmetz says.<\/p>\n The problem with relying on charisma for conservation is that it \u201cleaves a species vulnerable to subjective whims about what is charismatic,\u201d he says. Focusing on \u201cecological communities rather than single species,\u201d he adds, \u201cwould allow conservationists to address this gap.\u201d<\/p>\n Back in Kaeng Krachan, Chalong and his team hold on to the sides of their four-by-four as it bumps along a dirt track. They stop repeatedly to clear the piles of broken branches left by passing elephant herds. After 15 minutes, the car emerges into a clearing of long grass and a lake. Chalong jumps out of the vehicle and picks a piece of bone off the ground. \u201cIt\u2019s from a sambar deer,\u201d he says, the leopard\u2019s preferred prey in Kaeng Krachan.<\/p>\n \u201cThis watering hole was built about 13 years ago to support wildlife. All kinds of species come here to eat and drink: elephants, deer, gaur \u2026\u201d Chalong says, adding that such spaces benefit leopards by supporting prey populations. \u201cWhen a leopard comes, all the other animals quickly disappear,\u201d he chuckles. This particular project is funded by the Wildlife Conservation Society.<\/p>\n To bolster prey populations, WWF is developing saltlicks and grasslands and reintroducing at-risk ungulates such as sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) in leopard habitats such as Thailand\u2019s Mae Wong National Park, Khlong Lan National Park and Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary. They\u2019re also working to reconnect forests, restoring corridors between the Western Forest Complex, home to most of Thailand\u2019s leopards, and the Mae Ping-Om Koi Forest Complex, where leopards have recently been recorded. For Steinmetz, \u201cmaintaining connections between source sites and depleted sites\u201d is crucial in the long term to give leopards a chance at recovery.<\/p>\n Building on this, Panthera and WWF are now surveying Thailand and Malaysia to identify areas with the greatest conservation potential and possible corridors between them. \u201cThis is a critical first step,\u201d Mann says. He adds he hopes the findings will feed into national and regional action plans for Indochinese leopard conservation.<\/p>\n Conservation planning must account for how leopards interact with other predators, especially as recent conservation successes have boosted tiger populations in parts of Thailand . \u201cAs tiger numbers increase, leopards may be pushed to the fringes of protected areas, which could increase conflict with local communities,\u201d Mann says.<\/p>\n However, research by Steinmetz and WWF suggests leopards adapt when sharing territory with tigers . \u201cThey narrow their diet niche, focusing on primates and smaller prey, thereby reducing competition,\u201d he says. They also avoid tigers spatially. Ensuring habitats include areas with dense cover and fewer large prey helps leopards keep out of tigers\u2019 way.<\/p>\n For now, Mann says tiger densities remain too low to pose a danger to leopards. Because many of their threats overlap, tiger conservation often benefits leopards too: \u201cIt\u2019s certainly not a case of having to choose tigers or leopards at this point.\u201d<\/p>\n Just half an hour from Kaeng Krachan, Wildlife Friends Foundation Thailand (WFFT) rescues wild animals from the illegal trade, a leading cause of the Indochinese leopard\u2019s decline. Tom Taylor, head of operations, walks through the sanctuary\u2019s wildcat section. A 16-year-old female Indochinese leopard called Prik strolls over to greet him before settling into a leafy corner. The greenery is so dense it\u2019s hard to spot the other leopards inside the enclosure.<\/p>\n \u201cIn total, we have five females,\u201d Taylor says. The leopards, alongside 12 tigers, were rescued in 2023 from a northern Thai zoo linked to the illegal wildlife trade .<\/p>\n Though there is certainly global and regional demand for leopards and their parts \u2014 whether for use in traditional medicine, or for zoos and private collections \u2014 Panthera\u2019s Mann says that \u201cmuch of the harm being done to leopards is a result of the demand for other \u2018wild products,\u2019 which can impact leopards through incidental snaring, prey depletion, or general habitat degradation.\u201d<\/p>\n Drawing from Panthera\u2019s work in Africa, Mann argues that strengthening the security of protected areas where leopards live \u201cwould almost certainly be an effective intervention\u201d in Southeast Asia. But the region\u2019s vast forests, rugged mountains and dense vegetation make policing these areas far more difficult, providing ample cover for poachers. Over the long term, Mann says, real progress will also depend on reducing demand for wildlife and wildlife products.<\/p>\n A few meters away from Prik\u2019s enclosure at the sanctuary, a poster features pictures of wildcats and their descriptions in Thai. WFFT also organizes visits from local schools, Taylor says. The focus of these visits is not only to expose children to wildlife, but to teach them about the consequences of poaching and consuming wildlife products. \u201cWe really hope we can change attitudes by working with younger generations,\u201d Taylor says.<\/p>\n After decades of decline, the Indochinese leopard now clings to survival in a greatly reduced range. Mann says he remains cautiously hopeful: \u201cThere are vast areas of habitat available. Though many would need to be restored, the fact that they exist provides cause for optimism.\u201d<\/p>\n Recovery in Cambodia, Laos or Vietnam would require reintroduction. \u201cThe most likely site for a reintroduction is probably the Eastern Plains landscape of Cambodia,\u201d Mann says. \u201cBut success would depend on a major reduction in poaching.\u201d<\/p>\n For now, conservationists agree the priority is to safeguard stronghold populations in Thailand, Myanmar and Malaysia.<\/p>\n While conservation plans are drawn up at regional and international levels, the day-to-day work of protecting leopards falls to the rangers on the ground. Soon after Chalong and his team arrive at the watering hole, rain begins to fall. A drizzle turns into a downpour, and they retreat to the park cafeteria. Over plates of steaming rice and pad kra pao, the rangers swap leopard stories. Leopards are occasionally seen pacing along the park\u2019s main trail.<\/p>\n \u201cWe used to avoid sharing photos of leopards, because we didn\u2019t want hunters to target them,\u201d Chalong says. \u201cNow we are more selective with visitors, and we try to share more photos so people will want to protect them.\u201d<\/p>\n After lunch, the rangers pull on their raincoats and head back into the forest to check the last camera traps. The rain hasn\u2019t stopped, and neither has their work.<\/p>\n Rostro-Garc\u00eda, S., Kamler, J. F., Sollmann, R., Balme, G., Augustine, B. C., K\u00e9ry, M., \u2026 Macdonald, D. W. (2023). Population dynamics of the last Leopard population of eastern Indochina in the context of improved law enforcement. Biological Conservation, 283, 110080. doi:10.1016\/j.biocon.2023.110080<\/p>\n Rostro-Garc\u00eda, S., Kamler, J. F., Sollmann, R., Balme, G., Sukmasuang, R., Godfrey, A., \u2026 Macdonald, D. W. (2024). Leopards on the edge: Assessing population status, habitat use, and threats in Southeast Asia. Biological Conservation, 299, 110810. doi:10.1016\/j.biocon.2024.110810<\/p>\n Odden, M., Wegge, P., & Fredriksen, T. (2010). Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? Ecological Research, 25(4), 875-881. doi:10.1007\/s11284-010-0723-1<\/p>\n Harihar, A., Pandav, B., & Goyal, S. P. (2011). Responses of Leopard Panthera pardus to the recovery of a tiger Panthera tigris population. Journal of Applied Ecology, 48(3), 806-814. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2011.01981.x<\/p>\n Duangchantrasiri, S., Sornsa, M., Jathanna, D., Jornburom, P., Pattanavibool, A., Simcharoen, S., \u2026 Ullas Karanth, K. (2024). Rigorous assessment of a unique tiger recovery in Southeast Asia based on photographic capture-recapture modeling of population dynamics. Global Ecology and Conservation, 53, e03016. doi:10.1016\/j.gecco.2024.e03016<\/p>\n Steinmetz, R., Seuaturien, N., & Chutipong, W. (2013). Tigers, leopards, and dholes in a half-empty forest: Assessing species interactions in a guild of threatened carnivores. Biological Conservation, 163, 68-78. doi:10.1016\/j.biocon.2012.12.016<\/p>\n Phumanee, W., Steinmetz, R., Phoonjampa, R., Bejraburnin, T., Bhumpakphan, N., & Savini, T. (2021). Coexistence of large carnivore species in relation to their major prey in Thailand. Global Ecology and Conservation, 32, e01930. doi:10.1016\/j.gecco.2021.e01930<\/p>\n Nijman, V., Morcatty, T., Smith, J. H., Atoussi, S., Shepherd, C. R., Siriwat, P., \u2026 Bergin, D. (2019). Illegal wildlife trade \u2014 Surveying open animal markets and online platforms to understand the poaching of wild cats. Biodiversity, 20(1), 58-61. doi:10.1080\/14888386.2019.1568915<\/p>\n Uddin, N., Enoch, S., Harihar, A., Pickles, R. S. A., & Hughes, A. C. (2023). Laundered alive? The transnational trade in wild felids through Bangladesh. Global Ecology and Conservation, 41, e02356. doi:10.1016\/j.gecco.2022.e02356<\/p>\nThe attention gap<\/h2>\n
Rebuilding prey and habitat<\/h2>\n
Caught in the trade<\/h2>\n
A future in question<\/h2>\n
Citations:<\/h2>\n