The vicu\u00f1a today is a victim of a Latin America biodiversity crisis that has seen a 95% decline in wildlife between 1970 and 2020, according to the WWF\u2019s 2024 Living Planet Report.<\/p>\n
A key driver of that decline is mineral extraction.<\/p>\n Vicu\u00f1a is also the name given to a vast $18 billion metallurgical planning district that could devastate and transform endangered vicu\u00f1a habitat. Straddling the border of Argentina\u2019s San Juan province and Chile\u2019s Atacama region, this high-altitude Andes region represents one of the largest recent copper finds on Earth. Once developed, the Vicu\u00f1a district will supply a booming global copper market.<\/p>\n That boom is driven in part by a technological revolution in sustainability as this versatile metal is utilized in electric vehicles, wind turbines, solar panels, storage batteries, grid electrification, and AI data centers, facilities, which may one day help curb the climate crisis.<\/p>\n By 2040, the estimated annual global need for copper could reach 50 million metric tons a year, twice the total consumption from 1900 to 2022. \u201cCopper, they say, is the next petroleum,\u201d states Thyana Alvarez, vice president of Copper Giant, which owns the large Mocoa mining project in southern Colombia.<\/p>\n But there is a problem: By 2040, global copper supply is predicted to fall 10 million metric tons short of demand, supercharging a rush for new extraction projects reaching deep into remote untapped regions and likely causing serious environmental and social harm.<\/p>\n \u201cThe expansion of copper mining projects such as Josemar\u00eda \u2014 in the Vicu\u00f1a district in San Juan [in Argentina] \u2014 is part of a broader extractive expansion process that entails serious breaches of environmental regulations, significant environmental impacts, and escalating social conflicts,\u201d Leandro Gomez, a spokesperson for FARN, an Argentine environmental organization, told Mongabay in an email. The Josemar\u00eda project is a 50-50 joint venture between two mining companies: Canada-based Lundin and Australian BHP.<\/p>\n Copper isn\u2019t the only vital resource needed for renewables that may be running short. The proposed Vicu\u00f1a mining district is located in an area with 2,100 glaciers, which are expected to \u201close more than 80% of their current volume by 2100\u201d due to climate change, according to a report by the Argentine Institute of Snow, Ice, and Environmental Sciences. More than seven million Argentinians live within glacier-fed watersheds.<\/p>\n But that meltwater is also key to the copper industry.<\/p>\n Mining and processing copper is water intensive and getting more so: \u201cBetween 2015 and 2019 copper mines withdrew 13.6 trillion liters of water globally, with water use increasing at a rate 50% higher than copper production,\u201d according to the Institute for Ecological Economics.<\/p>\n Argentina\u2019s Bajo de La Alumbrera copper mine alone consumes more than 25 billion liters of water annually and \u201cthe impact has been reflected over the years in the reduction of cultivated areas, lower agricultural production and the loss of crop quality due to water stress,\u201d Leandro G\u00f3mez, an environmental policy coordinator told Dialogue Earth.<\/p>\n One reason the mining industry has given for wanting exemptions from Argentina\u2019s environmental laws (which until recently protected the nation\u2019s glaciers) is that the companies are exporting \u201cgreen\u201d copper destined for sustainable industries.<\/p>\n But copper\u2019s sustainability claims are tarnished: Its supply chain impacts are well documented and even acknowledged by the industry. A 2023 report by the International Copper Association (ICA) listed \u201cpriority issues,\u201d including climate change emissions, sulphur dioxide pollution, marine and terrestrial eutrophication potential due to nitrogen oxide releases, large-scale electricity consumption (including from coal), and ozone depletion potential.<\/p>\n Copper production (from mining to crushing, milling, ore concentration, smelting, refining and waste management) generates large amounts of solid and chemical waste posing significant risks to human and environmental health.<\/p>\n These problems could worsen: A 2025 study published in Nature<\/em> found: \u201cThe transition to low-carbon technologies, essential for energy transition, significantly increases the demand for minerals, with projections indicating a sixfold rise by 2040.\u201d<\/p>\n The researchers also found that of 5,000 proposed and existing global mining projects extracting minerals for the energy transition, 54% are on or near Indigenous territories.<\/p>\n Though the copper industry touts its recycling capacity, the rush is on to aggressively mine this versatile metal across the tropics. Mongabay has assembled a sampling of new copper mining projects, which have gained media or NGO attention due to perceived risks. They are as follows:<\/p>\n In the Caraj\u00e1s Amazon region of Brazil, the drive to dig new copper mines is accelerating. A survey by Rep\u00f3rter Brasil conducted in partnership with Mongabay, identified 676 copper, manganese, and nickel projects developed in Caraj\u00e1s since 1969, with 25% of them happening between 2021 and 2025. Dozens of mining requests made there over the last five years threaten land reform settlements in the region.<\/p>\n A simultaneous surge in mineral extraction is occurring in the high Amazon forests of southwestern Colombia, causing Indigenous apprehension. Enviro Link reported in November 2025: \u201cZuly Rivera, a youth coordinator for the Nasa people, recalls how first it was goldminers who came calling, [promising prosperity]. Now, it\u2019s copper that has captured international attention.\u201d<\/p>\n In Mocoa, Southern Colombia, an Indigenous children\u2019s movement has risen to protest encroachment on ancestral lands by Canadian transnational Copper Giant. \u201cMocoa is a unique territory,\u201d Amazon Watch reported, located at the confluence of the Andes and the Amazon, where four of Colombia\u2019s major rivers originate: The Cauca, Magdalena, Caquet\u00e1 and Pat\u00eda.<\/p>\n Copper Giant promises economic development and responsible management, but a young woman leader expressed her fears of loss: \u201cMocoa is the most conserved territory, where the mountains hold the winds of the ancestors, which descend to embrace the Amazon.\u201d<\/p>\n The International Copper Association (ICA) has responded to such concerns by asserting that sustainability is at the core of its mission and that \u201cthe copper industry is united in its efforts to develop and operate in a more sustainable manner.\u201d Mongabay contacted the ICA with further questions but got no reply by publication.<\/p>\n In the U.S., 89% of copper reserves and resources are found within 35 miles of a Native American reservations. \u201cExtraction of any kind near Indigenous communities is strongly correlated with increased rates of gender-based violence, including sexual violence, harassment, murder and trafficking, as well as substance abuse,\u201d Jan Morrill, from Earthworks, an NGO that helps communities secure protections from extractive industries, told Mongabay in an email interview. 334 incidents of violence or protest were linked to mining cobalt, copper, nickel and lithium in the world\u2019s top 10 producing nations between 2021 and 2023.<\/p>\n In March 2026, the U.S. government gave the go-ahead for copper mining in Oak Flat, Arizona, the spiritual equivalent of Mount Sinai for the Apache people. The planned mine will leave a hole nearly 300 meters (1,000 feet) deep and three kilometers (two miles) wide. \u201cOak Flat is not just a piece of land: it is a place of prayer, ceremony and identity for the Apache people. This site should never have been traded away to foreign mining giants,\u201d U.S. representative Adelita Grijalva, a Democrat from Arizona, said<\/a> in a statement.<\/p>\n \u201cThroughout this wearying fight we have simply sought to protect our religious freedom,\u201d Mona Polacca, from the International Council of Thirteen Indigenous Grandmothers said<\/a> in a statement. \u201cDestroying our sacred land is sadly not new for Indigenous communities.\u201d<\/p>\n In Pinal County, northeast of Tucson, Arizona, more copper mining is planned. Melissa Crytzer Fry, chair of the Lower San Pedro Watershed Alliance, told Mongabay in an email of the implications: \u201cThe reintroduction of copper mining and its associated dewatering in the Galiuro Mountains would be devastating [to] one of the rarest ecosystems in the desert southwest. Copper Creek\u2019s riparian area of mature cottonwoods and saguaros would be replaced with a 28-square-mile series of open pits.\u201d<\/p>\n Crytzer Fry believes mining would obliterate part of the desert Southwest\u2019s Sky Islands, and with it the nation\u2019s largest mesquite bosque \u2014 a lush green ribbon of breeding habitat for endangered southwestern willow flycatchers (Empidonax traillii extimu<\/em>s) and yellow-billed cuckoos (Coccyzus americanus<\/em>), and home to bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis<\/em>).<\/p>\n \u201cThis unfragmented landscape boasts an important wildlife connectivity corridor that simply is irreplaceable,\u201d Crytzer Fry said. \u201cIt\u2019s hard to describe the incredible beauty of this watershed and valley, and its resilience \u2026 [an area annually] awash in a sea of yellow, as green-trunked palo-verdes and acacia bushes bloom \u2026 More than 4,000 migratory birds [gather here] in the country\u2019s most varied migratory flyway.\u201d<\/p>\n In the northern U.S, near Ely, Minnesota, Twin Metals Minnesota is moving ahead on an underground copper mine inside Superior National Forest, saying \u201cour plan [is] to do this right.\u201d Their extraction process will utilize copper sulphide mining, historically one of the most toxic and polluting forms of mineral extraction. In 2026, the U.S. Congress cleared the way for the project by overturning a long-standing ban on sulphide-mining in the forest by declaring the mine in the national interest. However, the parent Chilean company overseeing the project is contracted to send the copper to China, according to opponents of the mine.<\/p>\n In British Columbia, Canada, the Similkameen Indigenous bands are protesting copper mining expansion. \u201cThe sm\u01ddlqm\u00edx [Indigenous people] and our neighbours that choose to be here forever will have to deal with the consequences long after the profits and monies have left the valley,\u201d a tribal statement read.<\/p>\n Globally, the easy copper has been dug, meaning new mines could be more environmentally destructive due to declining ore quality, which requires more water- and chemical-intensive processing.<\/p>\n The energy needed to extract hard-to-get copper has surged and remains fossil fuel intensive. \u201cSince 1900, the energy we need to produce copper, the energy needed to make copper, is 16-fold up \u2026 And water consumption has doubled,\u201d according to Robert Friedland, founder of Ivanhoe Mines.<\/p>\n Copper extraction scars are likely to be lasting too: \u201cFrom mining and milling through hydro- and pyro-metallurgical processing to refining, [copper\u2019s] production has significant adverse impacts on atmosphere, surface and ground water quality, and the soil,\u201d according to a study published in Environmental Science and Pollution Research<\/em>.<\/p>\n A review in the International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies<\/em> found copper to be \u201cone of the most harmful heavy metals, causing adverse effects on human health and aquatic ecosystems.\u201d A report by the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre, headquartered in the U.K., declared it to be \u201cthe mineral with the highest number of allegations\u201d of environmental, community and worker abuse.<\/p>\n \u201cMine and smelting operations are having concerning impacts on air quality and health,\u201d Morrill told Mongabay, with studies detecting frequent spikes near production sites of sulphur dioxide, \u201cwhich contributes to acute and chronic respiratory problems, as well as acid rain.\u201d Airborne particulate matter from mining and processing can contain heavy metals including lead, cadmium, nickel and arsenic.<\/p>\n Near Serbian copper mines, \u201cair quality monitoring between 2019 and 2022 found arsenic levels hundreds and even a thousand times higher than allowed under [national] regulations,\u201d Morrill stated.<\/p>\n Copper extraction disasters can also come on suddenly. Sean Cornelius, who lives near the Kafue River in Zambia, was witness to the stream\u2019s contamination by copper mining waste. \u201cPrior to the 18th of February (2025) this was a vibrant and alive river. Now everything is dead \u2026 Overnight, this river died,\u201d he told the Associated Press. The cause: The collapse of a tailings pile at the Chinese-owned Sino-Metals Leach Zambia copper mine that sent highly acidic water and heavy metals such as manganese, copper and cobalt flooding into the stream \u2014 a source of freshwater for 60% of Zambia\u2019s 20 million people, according to the AP.<\/p>\n It was not the first time. Villages close to the mine have long reported acid spills and other contamination. \u201cYou can smell and taste the pollution,\u201d villagers told The Guardian<\/em>. \u201cWe ate the fish and soon everyone started crying with stomach pains,\u201d Floribert Kappa, a resident of Hippo Pool village said, The Guardian<\/em> reported. \u201cI collapsed and was taken to a hospital. I was told the damage was permanent.\u201d<\/p>\n Copper can be recycled, and often is when practical, as \u201ccopper products [now] contain more than 30 percent recycled content,\u201d according to ICS. But new demand greatly outstrips recycled availability.<\/p>\n In addition, copper recycling isn\u2019t harm-free. It is both expensive and hazardous due to difficulties in separating the metal from other materials. A study published in Environmental Science & Technology<\/em>, for example, found that, \u201ccopper [contained] in steel causes metallurgical problems\u201d when recycled.<\/p>\n Copper recycling is costly because of its \u201ccomplex and energy-intensive process, making it less economically feasible compared to mining new copper,\u201d The Sustainable Life explained. \u201cThe limited sources for copper recycling, lack of infrastructure, transportation issues, and regulatory hurdles pose significant challenges to the recycling industry, making it less viable as a sustainable solution.\u201d<\/p>\n The greatest copper mining boom in history seems likely to go on unabated, with copper remaining a vital element in the post-carbon energy transition. But, without significant regulation and industry innovation, old ways of working may continue: \u201cHistorically, mining booms have been tied to colonization, the forced displacement of Indigenous Peoples, and the creation of sacrifice zones,\u201d Morrill told Mongabay.<\/p>\n Wendsler Nosie, a former San Carlos Apache tribal chairman interviewed by PBS, questioned the wisdom of Indigenous sacred sites like the one at Oak Flat being thrown open to mining: \u201cThey have to think this through because there\u2019s not going to be copper here forever. And once it\u2019s all gone, then the whole stuff is contaminated forever.\u201d<\/p>\n In a separate story featured in the Business section of the New York Times<\/em>, Nosie noted further: \u201cWe\u2019re confronting that big dominant way, this corporate way of life. It\u2019s two ways of thinking clashing. There is no room for both. One will be destroyed.\u201d<\/p>\n Izydorczyk, G., Mikula, K., Skrzypczak, D., Moustakas, K., Witek-Krowiak, A., \u2026 Chojnacka, K. (2021). Potential environmental pollution from copper metallurgy and methods of management. Environmental Research, 197,<\/em> 111050. doi:10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111050<\/a><\/p>\n Kellner, E. (2025). Mineral extraction on Indigenous land: employing a relational approach to navigate the convergence of Indigenous and other ontologies and practices. Energy Research & Social Science, 125<\/em>, 104097. doi:10.1016\/j.erss.2025.104097<\/a><\/p>\n Smriti, A. A., Lodhi, S., & Shukla, S. (2023). Copper toxicity in aquatic ecosystem: A Review. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 11<\/em>(4), 134-138. doi:10.22271\/fish.2023.v11.i4b.2835<\/a><\/p>\n Rehman, M., Liu, L., Wang, Q., Saleem, M. H., Bashir, S., Ullah, S., \u2026 Peng, D. (2019). Copper environmental toxicology, recent advances, and future outlook: a review. Environmental science and pollution research, 26<\/em>(18), 18003-18016. doi:10.1007\/s11356-019-05073-6<\/a><\/p>\n Daehn, K. E., Cabrera Serrenho, A., \u2026 Allwood, J. M. (2017). How will copper contamination constrain future global steel recycling?. Environmental science & technology, 51<\/em>(11), 6599-6606. doi:10.1021\/acs.est.7b00997<\/a><\/p>\n![\"Wild](\"https:\/\/imgs.mongabay.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/20\/2026\/09\/22120434\/vicuna-the-animal.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
A future without enough water?<\/strong><\/h2>\n
South American copper production expands<\/strong><\/h2>\n
North American copper mining skyrockets<\/strong><\/h2>\n
Environmental and health impacts<\/strong><\/h2>\n
Recycling a partial, imperfect solution<\/strong><\/h2>\n
A clouded future<\/strong><\/h2>\n
Citations:<\/strong><\/h2>\n